A. 關於介紹電影發展的英語作文帶翻譯60字
i am not going to talk about the movie NO THIEF.
just now, i was told by one of my good friends that her electronic dictionary had gone. maybe someone BORROWED it PERMANENTLY. it just happened in the library of our XuHui campus.
several month ago, another classmate of mine lost her cellphone at the crossroad of CaoBao and GuiLin Road. the last second she still used her cellohone to receive a call, but even before the traffic light turned from red to green, she suddenly found that the phone had gone! i was at present. maybe the thief even walked away pretending to be at leisure just under my eyelid! we called 110 at once. the police came but they still could do nothing except putting on records simply. one of the police said to us that it was much more important for us to take good care of our possession than to rely on the policeman to arrest all the rampant thieves! waht he had said was really with reason and unforgotten!
no thief in the world! everybody hope so!
B. 求一篇電影發展史的作文，大學的，150字左右，要英文的急求！
The history of film spans over 100 years, from the latter part of the 19th century to the present day. Motion pictures developed graally from a carnival novelty to one of the most important tools of communication and entertainment, and mass media in the 20th century and into the 21st century. Most films before 1930 were silent. Motion picture films have substantially affected the arts, technology, and politics.
The cinema was invented ring the 1890s, ring what is now called the instrial revolution. It was considered a cheaper, simpler way to provide entertainment to the masses. Movies would become the most popular visual art form of the late Victorian age. It was simpler because of the fact that before the cinema people would have to travel long distances to see major dioramas or amusement parks. With the advent of the cinema this changed. During the first decade of the cinema's existence, inventors worked to improve the machines for making and showing films. The cinema is a complicated medium, and before it could be invented, several technological requirements had to be met
C. 求一篇中低成本電影如何發展的英文作文！！拜託啦！！謝謝
低成本靠的是央六。。只要央六收了就能賺錢，央視不收，又上不了院線，那就只能白扔了。。通常這種投資都影視公司自己投點，再找幾個暴發戶的冤大頭拉點，成了就賺，成不了就扔。。
低成本電影通常都是數字電影，最少二十萬就能拍完。《盲井》《大卡車上掉下來的小提琴》《我叫劉躍進》這都不屬於低成本了，《卡車上掉下的小提琴》還是上海電影製片廠那年的重點影片，只不過夭折了而已。。
Low cost by epicenter. Six. As long as the epicenter six received can earn money, CCTV do not sow or reap, they can't get on the court thread, it can only white threw. Usually this investment is film company oneself spend some points and then find several nouveau riche of suckers pull point, became earned, can't throw.
Low-budget films are usually digital movie, at least 200,000 can finish filming. The blind Wells "" daka the vechile violin" "complex but reasonable story makes me admire" this all doesn't belong to the low cost, the truck dropping of violin "or Shanghai film studio was key film, just died just..
D. 英文電影發展史
劃時代的作者電影:法國新浪潮電影始末 致敬大師:讓·呂克·戈達爾 悼念大師:小津安二郎 更多的... 編輯信箱 中國美術電影發展史 來源: 作者: 2004-02-25 16:10:30...所以培養人才,是美術電影發展的關鍵。 經過三十多年的不斷培養,逐步形成一支藝術、技術等各方面的專業隊伍。...
電影藝術發展概述??第一節??電影的發明 2 第二節??電影成為藝術 6 第二章??法國電影??第一節??法國電影藝術的先驅者 12 第二節??法國的印象派和先鋒派電影 17 第三節??法國詩意現實主義電影 23 第四節??法國"新浪潮"電影 30 第五節??法國"...
片》中把電影的發展歷史分為三部分:經濟、政治社會、 藝術,另外還有媒介發展史,我認為這是非常合理的。...法國電影企業的發展是這方面最早的一例。 無在好萊 塢電影企業出現以前,查爾斯·百代就開始了一場控制這一...
本書從現在所處的時代背景來認識和審視外國電影的意義和價值,研究對象:非文字形式的視聽語言的發展史;電影技術發展史;電影經濟史。...第九章 法國:年輕人的電影"新浪潮" 第十章 艱難跋涉中的民族電影 第十一章 歐洲:現代思潮中的內向化趨勢...
這個幽 靈的名字叫法國電影。 先遣者遭遇冷落 由於法國在世界電影史上的肇始地位,絕大多數國家的早期電影發展史上,都離不開法蘭西的影子,中國亦然。...可以說,除了蘇聯影片,法國電影 對中國電影發展方向的影響最大。 這種影響惟一的斷層是在"文革"期間。...
北京電影學院的電影理論考試復習提綱 第一章電影理論 考試內容: 外國電影理論發展史(重點)...一.外國電影理論發展史 經典電影理論部分 (一).法國印象派——先鋒派電影思潮..."作為探索新的形象性以及向文學靠攏的一種傾向,在電影劇作發展史上佔有一定的位 置。...
外國電影發展史(黃文達,華東師范大學出版社)的詳細介紹,評論,讀後感及網上價格比較。 把好圖書介紹給朋友..."外國電影發展史"的詳細介紹... 第九章 法國:年輕人的電影"新浪潮" 第十章 艱難跋涉中的民族電影 第十一章 歐洲:現代思潮中的內向化趨勢...
超文本發展史 瀏覽器發展歷史 微軟windows歷史 圖形用戶界面歷史 文學"電腦"形象大全 電腦史上的"第一"...2、百代電影公司(法國)已發展成為世界上最大的電影帝國,它每年出口到美國的影片是美國本土生產影片的兩倍。...
您現在的位置: 科幻桃花源 >> 科幻影視 >> 發展史 >> 正文 設為首頁 | 加入收藏...1895年12月28日,法國電影製造商路易斯和奧古斯丁在巴黎舉行首場電影演出,從而拉開了世界電影的帷幕。...科幻電影的創立者,法國電影製片商梅里斯於1897年拍攝了世界第一部關於x光的電影。...
1 第一章 世界電影藝術發展概述第一節 電影的發明 2 第二節 電影成為藝術 6 第二章 法國電影 第一節 法國電影藝術的先驅者 12 第二節法國的印象派和先鋒派電影 17 第三節 法國詩意現實主義電影 23 第四節 法國"新浪潮"電影 30 第五節 法國"左岸派"電影...
今天到西單買了昨天看中的幾本書《法國小說發展史》《法國志》《法國風俗》還有一本關於法國風景的圖片,一共花了130,...《神曲·地獄篇》+《天使艾梅麗》的電影原聲。dante+yann tiersen,從未嘗試的組合。書和音樂幾乎是我生活里必不可...
在法國絲綢工業發展史上最重要的人物肯定是織機式匠出身的里昂人賈卡,他是紋板提花織機的積極改革創新者,於1977年...終於為我們這個世界增添了一門新的藝術——電影。1895年3月19日,他們在里昂拍攝了第一部電影片《盧米埃爾的工廠大門...
1925年,夏奈爾公司推出了「夏奈爾5號」香水,獲得了世界性的成功,被視為法國香水發展史上的里程碑。至今各名牌時裝...第一次看《羅馬假日》是六歲的時候,電影片頭「本片所有的鏡頭都攝制於永恆的城市———羅馬。」令我對這座城市嚮往...
想拍一部倍受歡迎的電影。 名字:豆芽 愛好:玩 喜歡的音樂:紅顏,單戀高校等 e-mail:[email protected] ...什麼是法國時裝的精髓?通過法國時裝發展史,我們看到,法國時裝里最令人稱道的地方就是創新,那種既融合著本國文化、又...
在法國絲綢工業發展史上最重要的人物肯定是織機式匠出身的里昂人賈卡,他是紋板提花織機的積極改革創新者,於1977年...終於為我們這個世界增添了一門新的藝術——電影。1895年3月19日,他們在里昂拍攝了第一部電影片《盧米埃爾的工廠大門...
在法國絲綢工業發展史上最重要的人物肯定是織機式匠出身的里昂人賈卡,他是紋板提花織機的積極改革創新者,於1977年...終於為我們這個世界增添了一門新的藝術——電影。1895年3月19日,他們在里昂拍攝了第一部電影片《盧米埃爾的工廠大門...
在法國絲綢工業發展史上最重要的人物肯定是織機式匠出身的里昂人賈卡,他是紋板提花織機的積極改革創新者,於1977年...終於為我們這個世界增添了一門新的藝術——電影。1895年3月19日,他們在里昂拍攝了第一部電影片《盧米埃爾的工廠大門...
所以要是大家想看電影,還是去電影院吧,那裡的效果還更好。 ?? 當然去了電影院還是要小心,好萊塢的八大影業之一...年,香奈爾公司推出了「香奈爾5號」香水,獲得了世界性的成功,被視為法國香水發展史上的里程碑。香水依據其所含香精...
[陽光法國] 『陽光書院』 『陽光書吧』 小議中國美術與文明發展史(一) 2004-11-21 02:42 lpbm 小議中國美術與文明發展史(一) 學過美術史的朋友差不多都知道我們現在對史前繪畫文明的了解都是從出土的彩陶及遍布全國的岩畫遺存中得...
建築、雕塑、繪畫、素描、攝影、電影、裝飾藝術都在此完整的展出。奧塞博物館依年代順序,分三個樓層展出豐富的藝術作品...館內主要陳列1848年至1914年間創作的西方藝術作品,聚集了法國近代文化藝術的精華,填補了法國文化藝術發展史上從古代藝術...
基於德國神話「尼白龍根之歌」和北歐「沃爾松格傳說」改編的電影,德國2004年投資最大的神話史詩巨片,德國版的「指環王」。 巴黎街頭文化20年 法國關於塗鴉藝術的記錄片,這是一部記錄1983—2003間法國塗鴉藝術發展史的記錄電影,電影客觀的...
那裡有眾多的世界聞名的大學、學院、圖書館以及博物院、展覽館、劇場、劇院及1985年5月落成的「晶球」全景電影院等...在法國絲綢工業發展史上最重要的人物肯定是織機式匠出身的里昂人賈卡,他是紋板提花織機的積極改革創新者,於1977年...
甚至專門研究了法國香水發展史,乃至各大香水公司的知名香水品牌。 恰好白蘭香也對香水極感興趣,一來二去兩人就用英語...韓嫣暴怒中的動作,在秦笛看來,不過是電影中的慢鏡頭,簡直可以和龜爬相提並論,不過這並不妨礙他用一種戲謔的心態來...
在我所熟悉的電影人之中,大凡經歷過貧困與煎熬的藝術家,才憑借著他們無比的熱誠與才華創造了影壇不朽的奇跡。 韓國...1789年的法國資產階級革命,開辟了歐洲資本主義發展史上一個新時代。具有全歐影響的文學運動——浪漫主義運動正是法國大...
法國人很注重藝術,扯點閑話當時在巴黎旅遊參觀hotel de ville的時候免費欣賞了法國電影的發展史,因為不能拍照所以沒有照片和大家分享 這個就是hotel de ville 總覺得法國的建築氣勢很壯觀連一個hotel都可以造的如此龐大,想想那時這樣的hotel...
歐洲大學發展史的縮影:法國巴黎大學 概況51 世界歷史上最悠久的大學 巴黎大學(university of paris)是法國國立大學,...報刊、電影、電視等媒介的全面介入,又使這場運動迅速波及整個法國,並影響到世界各地。最終,註定失敗的「五月風暴」是...
丹麥電影發展史 丹麥戲劇發展史 文學巨匠安徒生 丹麥文飲食習慣 丹麥音樂發展史 童話:la kura a tajloreto 安徒生:用...丹麥音樂發展史 · 法國電影《蝴蝶》主題曲 · 法語詞彙大全 · flash版法國地圖! · 散文「櫻花時節」中日對照 ...
也就是法國的1897型75裡面口徑速射炮,法國人最引以為豪的一個騙局!辰天記得法國的這種速射炮算得上火炮發展史上的...免費電影小說漂亮mm來啊 插入書簽 上一篇 下一篇 首頁 => 歷史 => 請叫我威廉三世 繁體 0.33659...
———貢布里西《藝術發展史》 我要到南方去找更強烈的光線和色彩。南方的小城凡度山、阿維庸、桔城、尼姆、阿爾勒...於是聊起蔡明亮的電影羅大佑的歌,頗為投機。他們說起因為假期預算有限,在法國期間只選擇了三個城市:巴黎,阿維庸和...
這座最早由法國人建起,最後被美國人買去的城市,新奧爾良,位於密西西比河河口,它是爵士樂的起源地,它的歷史幾乎就是一部爵士樂的發展史。無論著名的紅燈區storyville有怎樣狂歡的夜晚,無論林肯南下後多少年,那些爵士歌手唱的都是密西西比河...
E. 關於電影介紹的英文介紹作文怎麼寫作文
the lord of the rings 魔戒 With the help of a courageous fellowship of friends and allies, Frodo embarks on a perilous mission to destroy the legendary One Ring. Hunting Frodo are servants of the Dark Lord, Sauron, the Ring's evil creator. If Sauron reclaims the Ring, Middle-earth is doomed. When the final battle of middle-earth begins, Frodo and Sam, led by Gollum, continue their dangerous mission toward the fires of Mount Doom in order to destroy the One Ring, Aragorn struggles to fulfill his legacy as he leads his outnumbered followers against the growing power of the dark lord Sauron, So that the Ring-bearer may plete his quest. Winner of four Academy Award- Best pictures, Best Director, Best Art Direction and Best Visual Effects, this epic tale of good versus evil, friendship and sacrifice will transport you to a world beyond imagination.。
but also an opportunity to fight for their own ---- close to the governor to help him money. The last 20 years through the efforts of the hands of Reid with a buy from a *** all hammer to dig out of a prison outside the channel. So that it can not think of one，也為自己爭取到了機會凱洞----接近典獄長幫他洗黑錢。
最後通過20年的努力用一把從瑞德手中買來的小錘子挖出一條通向獄外的通道。令誰也想不到。
很喜歡瑞德獨白的那句話、面對殘酷現實依然心懷 夢想的精神以及超人的聰明才智Today i saw a very shocking film ((Shawshank Redemption)), andy deeply by the strong conviction in the face of the cruel reality of the spirit is still harbor dreams, as well as superhuman intelligence and wisdom。身心受盡折磨，被監獄里其他人的騷擾和毆打，而更痛苦的是在高牆里的精神折磨，以及知道tom知道自己的案件的畢孫粗真相卻不能翻案；Yes。
我覺得更神奇的是andy的精神號召力，他的做法總是能給他周圍的人一點鼓舞，哪怕是暫時的一點精神自由，As he put in the governor'，當它們飛走的時候，你會覺得把它們關起來欣賞是種罪惡。為工友爭取啤酒， that is andy，它們的羽毛太漂亮了。
；s mental torture, as well as the tom know know the truth about the case can not reverse the verdict, even for the time being that the spirit of freedom, and later released from prison so that the re-Reid to find a life of hope. . . There are even more amazing is the creative director ----- has escaped through a story has brought us so much inspiration and shock。
但是他依然是那麼充滿希望。. 類似肖申克的救贖的觀後感的文章中文翻譯在下面 只能找到這樣的了今天看了一部很震撼的電影（（肖申克的救贖）），深深地被andy的堅定不移的信念，銀行家andy被冤枉殺死了他的老婆及其情人，Prison others were harassed and beaten, and even more painful in the wall'. Sometimes reality is so cruel, bankers andy being wronged killed his wife and his lover. Had been tortured physically and mentally.有時候現實就是那麼殘酷。」
是的說的就是andy：「我不得不提醒自己有些鳥是不能關在籠子里的；s Office of the plate to the music people listen to the same prison. But he is still so full of hope. . . . Workers in their fight for the beer. I think magic is more the spirit of andy appeal, he can always practice, he is encouraged by the people around;I had to remind myself that some birds can not be locked up in cages, and their feathers are too beautiful, and when they fly away, you will find them locked up is an appreciation evil. ". Reid liked monologue of that sentence: "，像他在典獄長 的辦公室放音樂碟子給監獄的人聽一樣，以及後來讓出獄的瑞德重新找到生活的希望。 展開。
Micro Movie is booming
Micro movie is a booming form of web films. It has such features as follows:
First, its broadcast time is very short, ranging beeen several minutes and half an hour. Second, its making cycle is short as well. It can be made in one day or at most a week. Third, it needs only a little budget, which is always below ten thousand yuan. Fourth, it has a wide range of themes and a plete story plot. Last but not least, it can be watched by different means including mobile phone and tablet PCs.
If you are also interested, why not have a go at it?
這個是介紹微電影的 可以用
同意就採納吧 謝謝
Movies have bee popular in modern world. They are one of the most important ponents of entertainment instry. Movies can satisfy most people's creation need and serve as meanful approach for learning more about the society. For instance, they can introce other culture by bringing movies into one country. Nowadays, movies play an important role in tran *** itting culture. The influnce of Hollywood is widespread all over the world. Movies are usually proced by professional pany and actors or actresses. Most of movies reflect certain culture or try to introce certain idea. Thus, they always ecate people to better understand both themselves and other people. In general, it is necessary to choose high quality movie to enlarge our horizion.不知道有生詞沒，太長的話自己刪除一些。
i am not going to talk about the movie NO THIEF.
just now, i was told by one of my good friends that her electronic dictionary had gone. maybe someone BORROWED it PERMANENTLY. it just happened in the library of our XuHui campus.
several month ago, another clas *** ate of mine lost her cellphone at the crossroad of CaoBao and GuiLin Road. the last second she still used her cellohone to receive a call, but even before the traffic light turned from red to green, she suddenly found that the phone had gone! i was at present. maybe the thief even walked away pretending to be at leisure just under my eyelid! we called 110 at once. the police came but they still could do nothing except putting on records simply. one of the police said to us that it was much more important for us to take good care of our possession than to rely on the policeman to arrest all the rampant thieves! waht he had said was really with reason and unfotten!
no thief in the world! everybody hope so!
I have watched a film named Harry Potty,the famous movie around the world.It says that harry potter was a poor boy and he never saw his parents.he lived with his uncle .They were not good to him .Then he entered a magic school .he learned magic there and met his friends .some bad people wanted to kill him.he experienced a lot ,.but he finally defeated enimies.The writer created a wonderful and magical world,which is loved by all children in the world.I learned a lot from the film .you should have a good heart and not be afraid of any difficulties.we should be a brave and good person,and help the one who is in trouble.the people and the stories in that movie give me a deep depression.I hope that if you have a chance to watch it,you will love it like me。
The story happened ring the Second World War.Rick worked for American Intelligence Agency[1] in Paris. One day he met with Ilsa in Paris. They soon fell in love and planned to marry. However, with the German's march into Paris, they had to give up the plan and wished to get to Marseilles by train and married there. But just before the leaving by train, Rick received a letter from Ilsa, saying that she couldn't go with him. So he had to pass through many places to Casablanca and runs a Cafe[2] there. One night, he met Ilsa at his Cafe, who escaped with her hu *** and to Casablanca. They hoped to obtain exit visas here and escaped to the New World At first, Rick can't five that Ilsa's gone back on[3] her word. At first he refuses to help them get the exit visas. Learning this Ilsa determines to go alone to see Rick。
When I watched the film 《spider-man》，it give me a deep impressed.The main host-peter who is handsome and brave.He helped so many people who is need others help.
If we were him,whether we can sarcrified our love and friendship and even our study.In our life,people afraid of helping others and get into trouble.
Although we can not use special abilities like peter ,we can also try our best to help people.For example ,if we see some thieves to stolen people's wallet,we can shout to make the thieves hurries
If we can contribute our love-heart,our society will bee more and more warmth.People can make getting along well with each other.
Titanic Titanic is a love story about Jack and Rose.They were happy to be with each other on the ship celled Titanic.On the night of April 15 1912,the Titanic had a serious accident on the way to America.Jack and Rose fell into thr sea with many other people.They were very nervous and frightened because they were afraid of losing each other.In the end,Rose was saved, but Jack died.Rose felt very sad.She was so lonely.。
F. 求一篇600字左右英文的商業電影概念和起源、發展。
我找了下，商業電影是種電影分類，是以盈利性質來分的，沒有找到它自己的起源發展。只找到了商業電影的製作，貼過來看看吧。
The Three Stages of Commercial Film Proction
The methods that each indivial film procer uses may vary but in the end, for the most part, all commercial films are made by the same three stage process. Inevitably proction will be broken up into other sub-stages but in the end everything that is dome will fall into one of three categories.
The first stage of any commercial film proction will be the planning stage. It is ring this stage that a script is prepared and edited and any research that is required for the film topic takes place. It is important that this stage be completed thoroughly before the film procer advances to the next step of proction.
This would be the actual proction stage of the commercial film. However; this begins with designing and creating the set according to the budget that is allocated for the film. It is not hard to see that once proction begins, the first stage must be completed in its entirety to facilitate the actual problem free proction of the film.
Post proction is the third and final stage of a commercial film proction. This is the stage when the film is edited and any special effects are added. Also, quite often sound work will take place ring this third and final stage.
Shooting a commercial film is a risky financial proposition at best, so therefor it is crucial that everything be completely organized properly to proce optimal results. Attempting a commercial film proction in any other manner will almost virtually guarantee that the end result is a financial failure.
關於概念的闡述，只找到了中文的，一起拿來參考下：（注意，不是上文的翻譯）
商業電影
為營利而製作的影片，相對於藝術電影。
為盈利而製作的電影，相對於藝術電影。商業電影專指票房，從編劇到導演及演員均為此角度考慮
商業電影 Commeredia film
相為於藝術電影一詞，一般指為營利而製作的影片。私人的電影工業大都以營利為主，因此生產的影片大都屬於商業影片。在西方則以美國好萊塢為商業影片的大本營，重娛樂而不重現實。電影需要大量的觀眾，且觀眾也需要透過商業管道才能看到電影，但是這種商品性與商業電影的本質並非一致的，商業電影並非都是商業電影，而娛樂強的商業電影中具有社會性與藝術性的也不少。因此商業電影與電影的商品性被非一致。
文學藝術片本意為文學作品改編成的電影，現在已經是專門針對商業電影而言的一個定義。商業電影是相對於藝術電影，或者說文藝片而言的。顧名思義，藝術電影追求的是影片的藝術內涵，以行業認可為目標；商業電影追求的是票房及其衍生物的市場價值，以消費者認可為目標。所以我們所看到的所謂藝術電影的主題都是探求哲理、挖掘人性之類的深奧題材，拍攝手法不拘一格；而商業電影往往為了迎合廣大觀眾的欣賞口味，拍攝手法以視聽感官的刺激為方向，於是這個導演看見那個導演的方法受歡迎就拿來借鑒，日久天長就難免落入俗套。但事實上，在高度物質化的現代社會，即使是一部藝術電影也必須或多或少的考慮到自身的商業化效果，當然一部商業電影也或多或少帶有藝術成分。完全的商業和完全的藝術幾乎不存在。其實按照通俗標准來說，商業電影就是為了盈利而專門拍的電影，藝術電影則反之，不為了盈利，僅僅為了藝術、理論、宣傳教育等而拍攝，但是市場經濟以後，純藝術電影喪失了生存和發展的環境和空間，於是我們現在經常看見所謂的文藝電影也在爭奪影院票房，而許多商業大片為了追求更高的境界，同時也是提升其商業競爭力，而在一些技巧上借鑒藝術電影的視角或者手法，往往也獲得票房和影評的雙贏。所以說，嚴格的商業電影和藝術電影現在不僅沒有狠嚴格的界限，而且十分模糊，甚至已經嚴重交叉，我們一般還是通過習慣性判斷，和電影表達的內涵以及導演的執導思想來確定一部電影的大致方向。
G. 幫忙找電影發展史的英語版本，萬分感謝
History of Motion Pictures
I INTRODUCTION
History of Motion Pictures, historical development of the visual medium known as motion pictures, film, cinema, or the movies. This article covers the medium』s history as a technology, as a business, as an art form, and as a means of delivering entertainment and information to audiences in theaters and at home. It discusses major filmmakers and their films, principal fiction and nonfiction genres, and film instries in the United States and throughout the world. For more information on the technical aspects involved in creating a film, see Motion Picture.
II ORIGINS
In the early 19th century scientists took note of a visual phenomenon: A sequence of indivial still pictures, when set in motion, can give the illusion of movement. These scientists attributed this experience to what they called persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. The eye』s retention of a visual image, now known as positive afterimage, has long been considered a founding principle of motion pictures, even though its relationship to the perception of motion is still not well understood.
A Early Experiments
The persistence of vision concept stimulated experimentation with motion-picture devices throughout the 19th century. Among the first such devices was a slotted disk with a sequence of drawings around its perimeter. When a person spun the disk in front of a mirror and looked through the slots, the drawings appeared to move. The zoetrope, a device developed in the 1830s, was a hollow drum with a strip of pictures around its inner surface. When spun, it proced the same effect. In the 1870s French inventor Émile Reynaud improved on this idea by placing mirrors at the center of the drum. A few years later he developed a projecting version, using a reflector and a lens to enlarge the moving images. In 1892 he began holding public screenings in Paris at his Théâtre Optique, with hundreds of drawings on a reel that he wound through his apparatus to construct moving images that continued for 15 minutes.
Inventors began to conceive of combining the principles of these moving-image devices with the photographic recording of actual movement soon after the development of still photography in the 1830s. The most famous experiment occurred in the 1870s in California, where railroad tycoon Leland Stanford hired British photographer Eadweard Muybridge to settle a bet on whether a galloping horse ever had all four feet off the ground. Muybridge set up 12 cameras along a racetrack and spread threads across the track with a contact to each camera』s shutter. Moving along the track, the horse broke the threads and caused a sequence of photographs to be taken. The photos showed the horse with all four feet off the ground, and Muybridge went on a lecture tour showing his photographs on a moving-image device he called the zoopraxiscope.
Muybridge』s endeavors stimulated French scientist Étienne-Jules Marey to devise equipment for recording and analyzing animal and human movement. He built what he called a chronophotographic camera that could take multiple images superimposed on one another. His work was aided in turn by developments in photographic materials. In 1885 American inventor George Eastman introced sensitized paper roll 「film」 in place of the indivial glass plates then in use. In 1889 Eastman replaced the paper roll with celluloid, a synthetic plastic material coated with a gelatin emulsion.
B Thomas Alva Edison and William K. L. Dickson
Legendary American inventor Thomas Alva Edison drew upon the work of Muybridge, Marey, and Eastman when he turned his attention to motion pictures in the late 1880s. In his laboratories in West Orange, New Jersey, Edison assigned to a British employee, William K. L. Dickson, the task of constructing a machine for recording actual movement on film and another machine for viewing the resulting images. By 1891 Dickson had proced a motion-picture camera, called the Kinetograph, and a viewing machine, bbed the Kinetoscope.
The Kinetograph was operated by an electric motor that moved the celluloid film roll past the camera lens. Motor-driven cameras, which were bulky and stationary, were soon replaced by movable hand-cranked cameras. Dickson』s key contribution was a sprocket mechanism linked to the camera』s shutter, which momentarily stopped the film roll for each exposure. These separate still photographic images came to be called frames. Early cameras used a number of different speeds for exposing frames, but by the advent of sound film in the late 1920s the standard had become 24 frames per second.
In early 1893 Edison constructed a motion-picture studio on his laboratory grounds, bbed the Black Maria by his staff who thought it resembled police patrol wagons known by that nickname. On May 9, 1893, he held the first public exhibition of films shot using the Kinetograph in the Black Maria. But only one person at a time could use his viewing machine, the Kinetoscope. This boxlike structure contained a motor-and-shutter mechanism similar to the camera』s. It ran a loop of positive film past an electric light source, illuminating a tiny image, which the viewer observed through a small window. Kinetoscope viewing parlors containing many machines for indivial viewing began to open in cities in 1894. Edison and Dickson apparently gave little thought to a single machine that could project moving images to a large audience, something Reynaud had achieved in his Théâtre Optique. Reynaud, however, had displayed drawings rather than images photographed by a motion-picture camera.
C The Lumière Brothers
In France, the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, who ran a factory in Lyons that manufactured photographic equipment, sought to improve on Edison』s accomplishment. By 1895 they developed a lightweight, hand-held camera that used a claw mechanism to advance the film roll. They named it the Cinématographe, and they soon discovered that it could also be used to show large images on a screen, when linked with projecting equipment. Throughout 1895 they shot films and projected them for select groups. Their first screening for the general public was held in Paris in December 1895.
Elsewhere other inventors were also busy. In Germany, the brothers Emil and Max Skladanowsky devised an apparatus and projected films in Berlin in November 1895. In Britain, a machine developed by Birt Acres and Robert W. Paul was used to project films in London in January 1896. In the United States, a projector called the Vitascope was constructed around the same time by Charles Francis Jenkins and Thomas Armat. Armat then entered into a commercial alliance with Edison to manufacture the Vitascope, and the device exhibited projected motion pictures in New York City in April 1896.
The Lumière brothers held a unique place among all these simultaneous efforts, since they were innovative filmmakers as well as inventors and manufacturers. The many films they made ring 1895 and 1896, though very short, are considered pivotal in the history of motion pictures. Arroseur et arrosé (Waterer and Watered, 1896), a brief comedy drawn from a newspaper cartoon, shows a gardener getting drenched with a hose as the result of a boy』s prank. La sortie de l』usine Lumière à Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory, 1895) and Arrivée d』un train en gare (Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat, 1896), which shows a train coming to a station and passengers getting off, were among the so-called actuality films—films that depicted actual events rather than a story told by actors—for which the Lumières became noted.
III ONE-REELERS
During the decade following the advent of projected motion pictures, films were shown as part of vaudeville or variety programs, at carnivals and fairgrounds, in lecture halls and churches, and graally in spaces converted for the exclusive exhibition of movies. Most films ran no longer than 10 to 12 minutes, which reflected the amount of film that could be wound on a standard reel for projection (hence the term one-reelers). Many were comedies or actualities, following the Lumière brothers』 example. Their purpose was spectacle—to show something astounding, unusual, titillating, or perhaps newsworthy. But filmmakers also struck out in new directions, especially toward fantasy and narrative.
French magician and filmmaker Georges Méliès was the outstanding creator of fantasy films in early cinema. Méliès exploited the new medium to enhance his magic acts through techniques such as stop-motion photography—interrupting the camera』s action and moving or substituting people and objects—so that, for example, a woman appeared to turn into a skeleton. He created elaborate backdrops with multiple scenes and costume changes for these so-called trick films that were widely emulated by other filmmakers. Of the hundreds of works he made between 1896 and 1912, perhaps the best-known is Le voyage dans la lune (A Trip to the Moon, 1902), which in one scene features the animated human face of the moon being struck in the eye by a rocket.
In the United States, a former projectionist and traveling exhibitor, Edwin S. Porter, took charge of motion-picture proction at Edison』s company in 1901 and began making longer films that told a story. As with Méliès』s films, these required multiple shots that could be edited into a narrative sequence. Porter』s most notable film—and the most famous work of early cinema—was The Great Train Robbery (1903), which is credited with establishing movies as a commercial entertainment medium. With its rapid shifts of location, including action on a moving train, this film offered spectators a breadth and immediacy of vision that became hallmarks of the cinema experience.
Spurred by The Great Train Robbery and subsequent story films, film exhibition greatly expanded in the United States around 1905. One phenomenon was the proliferation of nickelodeon theaters, converted storefronts in instrial cities that charged 5 cents for admission and attracted working-class audiences. Demand from these theaters increased the volume of film proction and the profits for procers, but it also brought forth criticism from reformers concerning unsanitary or unsafe conditions in theaters and immoral subject matter in films. In 1908 Edison took the lead in establishing the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), a consortium of procers with common goals: controlling proction and distribution so as to eliminate cheap theaters, raising admission prices, cooperating with censorship bodies, and preventing film stock from getting into the hands of nonmember procers. However, the independent procers excluded from the MPPC continued to obtain materials and make the most popular films. They also led the way toward multireel, feature-length films. By 1915 the MPPC was under attack by the U.S. government as an illegal monopoly (although an ineffectual one), and the independents were combining into the companies that would dominate American filmmaking for decades to come.
IV SILENT MOVIES
With a few experimental exceptions, motion pictures from their earliest days until the late 1920s lacked synchronous sound (sound that matches the action). But silent movies were rarely silent. Early films almost always were projected with piano or organ accompaniment, and sometimes also with a narrator or live actors behind the screen. As feature-length films (four reels, with a running time of 40 to 50 minutes or more) became the norm in the 1910s, live orchestras began to play in larger theaters, frequently using music written specifically for the film.
Until World War I (1914-1918) European filmmakers dominated the world film market. France was considered the leading film-procing country, though Italy, Denmark, and other countries also played a significant role. However, the war, fought on European soil, disrupted commercial filmmaking there. With a sudden drop in European film exports, some regions, such as Latin America, experienced a brief surge in film proction. But U.S. companies soon took over markets overseas, using the same tactics of high-volume proction and lower prices that the Europeans had. By the 1920s some three-quarters of films screened around the world came from the United States.
A American Silent Movies
Even before the war, the United States had made its mark on the world filmmaking scene with epics and comedies. Moreover, U.S. moviemakers had begun to congregate in southern California in the Los Angeles suburb of Hollywood (see The Move to Hollywood, below), creating a film community apart from older urban centers of politics and the arts, and a magical new symbol for popular entertainment and glamour.
A1 D. W. Griffith
The work of D. W. Griffith exemplifies the transformation of motion pictures from the early days of one-reelers to an era of Hollywood』s worldwide dominance. Starting out as an actor in films directed by Edwin S. Porter, Griffith in 1908 became a director at the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in New York City. He was initially responsible for turning out two one-reel films a week, and between 1908 and 1913 he directed nearly 500 films. Amidst this breakneck schele, he and his co-workers developed many of the cinema』s basic storytelling conventions: moving the camera close to the action, using many separate shots, and editing the shots to cut back and forth among different actions. All these techniques served to shape a narrative, rather than present a spectacle as earlier films had tended to do. Griffith also nurtured performers such as Mary Pickford and Lillian Gish and emphasized an intimate, restrained style of acting suitable for camera close-ups.
Leaving Biograph in 1913 to make full-length features, Griffith planned a historical epic of the American Civil War (1861-1865). The Birth of a Nation (1915), three hours in length, stunned audiences with its dazzling spectacle of a still-recent event and established motion pictures as an art form for cultured spectators. Yet the film』s racist presumptions—specifically, its defense of white supremacy to protect racial purity—was controversial in its own time and remains repugnant decades later. Griffith made another epic, Intolerance (1916), which intertwined four stories about victims of prejudice, and continued to work as an independent filmmaker into the 1920s. Eventually, financial pressures forced him to become a director at a Hollywood studio, and he made his last film in 1931.
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