A. 关于介绍电影发展的英语作文带翻译60字
i am not going to talk about the movie NO THIEF.
just now, i was told by one of my good friends that her electronic dictionary had gone. maybe someone BORROWED it PERMANENTLY. it just happened in the library of our XuHui campus.
several month ago, another classmate of mine lost her cellphone at the crossroad of CaoBao and GuiLin Road. the last second she still used her cellohone to receive a call, but even before the traffic light turned from red to green, she suddenly found that the phone had gone! i was at present. maybe the thief even walked away pretending to be at leisure just under my eyelid! we called 110 at once. the police came but they still could do nothing except putting on records simply. one of the police said to us that it was much more important for us to take good care of our possession than to rely on the policeman to arrest all the rampant thieves! waht he had said was really with reason and unforgotten!
no thief in the world! everybody hope so!
B. 求一篇电影发展史的作文，大学的，150字左右，要英文的急求！
The history of film spans over 100 years, from the latter part of the 19th century to the present day. Motion pictures developed graally from a carnival novelty to one of the most important tools of communication and entertainment, and mass media in the 20th century and into the 21st century. Most films before 1930 were silent. Motion picture films have substantially affected the arts, technology, and politics.
The cinema was invented ring the 1890s, ring what is now called the instrial revolution. It was considered a cheaper, simpler way to provide entertainment to the masses. Movies would become the most popular visual art form of the late Victorian age. It was simpler because of the fact that before the cinema people would have to travel long distances to see major dioramas or amusement parks. With the advent of the cinema this changed. During the first decade of the cinema's existence, inventors worked to improve the machines for making and showing films. The cinema is a complicated medium, and before it could be invented, several technological requirements had to be met
C. 求一篇中低成本电影如何发展的英文作文！！拜托啦！！谢谢
低成本靠的是央六。。只要央六收了就能赚钱，央视不收，又上不了院线，那就只能白扔了。。通常这种投资都影视公司自己投点，再找几个暴发户的冤大头拉点，成了就赚，成不了就扔。。
低成本电影通常都是数字电影，最少二十万就能拍完。《盲井》《大卡车上掉下来的小提琴》《我叫刘跃进》这都不属于低成本了，《卡车上掉下的小提琴》还是上海电影制片厂那年的重点影片，只不过夭折了而已。。
Low cost by epicenter. Six. As long as the epicenter six received can earn money, CCTV do not sow or reap, they can't get on the court thread, it can only white threw. Usually this investment is film company oneself spend some points and then find several nouveau riche of suckers pull point, became earned, can't throw.
Low-budget films are usually digital movie, at least 200,000 can finish filming. The blind Wells "" daka the vechile violin" "complex but reasonable story makes me admire" this all doesn't belong to the low cost, the truck dropping of violin "or Shanghai film studio was key film, just died just..
D. 英文电影发展史
划时代的作者电影:法国新浪潮电影始末 致敬大师:让·吕克·戈达尔 悼念大师:小津安二郎 更多的... 编辑信箱 中国美术电影发展史 来源: 作者: 2004-02-25 16:10:30...所以培养人才,是美术电影发展的关键。 经过三十多年的不断培养,逐步形成一支艺术、技术等各方面的专业队伍。...
电影艺术发展概述??第一节??电影的发明 2 第二节??电影成为艺术 6 第二章??法国电影??第一节??法国电影艺术的先驱者 12 第二节??法国的印象派和先锋派电影 17 第三节??法国诗意现实主义电影 23 第四节??法国"新浪潮"电影 30 第五节??法国"...
片》中把电影的发展历史分为三部分:经济、政治社会、 艺术,另外还有媒介发展史,我认为这是非常合理的。...法国电影企业的发展是这方面最早的一例。 无在好莱 坞电影企业出现以前,查尔斯·百代就开始了一场控制这一...
本书从现在所处的时代背景来认识和审视外国电影的意义和价值,研究对象:非文字形式的视听语言的发展史;电影技术发展史;电影经济史。...第九章 法国:年轻人的电影"新浪潮" 第十章 艰难跋涉中的民族电影 第十一章 欧洲:现代思潮中的内向化趋势...
这个幽 灵的名字叫法国电影。 先遣者遭遇冷落 由于法国在世界电影史上的肇始地位,绝大多数国家的早期电影发展史上,都离不开法兰西的影子,中国亦然。...可以说,除了苏联影片,法国电影 对中国电影发展方向的影响最大。 这种影响惟一的断层是在"文革"期间。...
北京电影学院的电影理论考试复习提纲 第一章电影理论 考试内容: 外国电影理论发展史(重点)...一.外国电影理论发展史 经典电影理论部分 (一).法国印象派——先锋派电影思潮..."作为探索新的形象性以及向文学靠拢的一种倾向,在电影剧作发展史上占有一定的位 置。...
外国电影发展史(黄文达,华东师范大学出版社)的详细介绍,评论,读后感及网上价格比较。 把好图书介绍给朋友..."外国电影发展史"的详细介绍... 第九章 法国:年轻人的电影"新浪潮" 第十章 艰难跋涉中的民族电影 第十一章 欧洲:现代思潮中的内向化趋势...
超文本发展史 浏览器发展历史 微软windows历史 图形用户界面历史 文学"电脑"形象大全 电脑史上的"第一"...2、百代电影公司(法国)已发展成为世界上最大的电影帝国,它每年出口到美国的影片是美国本土生产影片的两倍。...
您现在的位置: 科幻桃花源 >> 科幻影视 >> 发展史 >> 正文 设为首页 | 加入收藏...1895年12月28日,法国电影制造商路易斯和奥古斯丁在巴黎举行首场电影演出,从而拉开了世界电影的帷幕。...科幻电影的创立者,法国电影制片商梅里斯于1897年拍摄了世界第一部关于x光的电影。...
1 第一章 世界电影艺术发展概述第一节 电影的发明 2 第二节 电影成为艺术 6 第二章 法国电影 第一节 法国电影艺术的先驱者 12 第二节法国的印象派和先锋派电影 17 第三节 法国诗意现实主义电影 23 第四节 法国"新浪潮"电影 30 第五节 法国"左岸派"电影...
今天到西单买了昨天看中的几本书《法国小说发展史》《法国志》《法国风俗》还有一本关于法国风景的图片,一共花了130,...《神曲·地狱篇》+《天使艾梅丽》的电影原声。dante+yann tiersen,从未尝试的组合。书和音乐几乎是我生活里必不可...
在法国丝绸工业发展史上最重要的人物肯定是织机式匠出身的里昂人贾卡,他是纹板提花织机的积极改革创新者,于1977年...终于为我们这个世界增添了一门新的艺术——电影。1895年3月19日,他们在里昂拍摄了第一部电影片《卢米埃尔的工厂大门...
1925年,夏奈尔公司推出了“夏奈尔5号”香水,获得了世界性的成功,被视为法国香水发展史上的里程碑。至今各名牌时装...第一次看《罗马假日》是六岁的时候,电影片头“本片所有的镜头都摄制于永恒的城市———罗马。”令我对这座城市向往...
想拍一部倍受欢迎的电影。 名字:豆芽 爱好:玩 喜欢的音乐:红颜,单恋高校等 e-mail:[email protected] ...什么是法国时装的精髓?通过法国时装发展史,我们看到,法国时装里最令人称道的地方就是创新,那种既融合着本国文化、又...
在法国丝绸工业发展史上最重要的人物肯定是织机式匠出身的里昂人贾卡,他是纹板提花织机的积极改革创新者,于1977年...终于为我们这个世界增添了一门新的艺术——电影。1895年3月19日,他们在里昂拍摄了第一部电影片《卢米埃尔的工厂大门...
在法国丝绸工业发展史上最重要的人物肯定是织机式匠出身的里昂人贾卡,他是纹板提花织机的积极改革创新者,于1977年...终于为我们这个世界增添了一门新的艺术——电影。1895年3月19日,他们在里昂拍摄了第一部电影片《卢米埃尔的工厂大门...
在法国丝绸工业发展史上最重要的人物肯定是织机式匠出身的里昂人贾卡,他是纹板提花织机的积极改革创新者,于1977年...终于为我们这个世界增添了一门新的艺术——电影。1895年3月19日,他们在里昂拍摄了第一部电影片《卢米埃尔的工厂大门...
所以要是大家想看电影,还是去电影院吧,那里的效果还更好。 ?? 当然去了电影院还是要小心,好莱坞的八大影业之一...年,香奈尔公司推出了“香奈尔5号”香水,获得了世界性的成功,被视为法国香水发展史上的里程碑。香水依据其所含香精...
[阳光法国] 『阳光书院』 『阳光书吧』 小议中国美术与文明发展史(一) 2004-11-21 02:42 lpbm 小议中国美术与文明发展史(一) 学过美术史的朋友差不多都知道我们现在对史前绘画文明的了解都是从出土的彩陶及遍布全国的岩画遗存中得...
建筑、雕塑、绘画、素描、摄影、电影、装饰艺术都在此完整的展出。奥塞博物馆依年代顺序,分三个楼层展出丰富的艺术作品...馆内主要陈列1848年至1914年间创作的西方艺术作品,聚集了法国近代文化艺术的精华,填补了法国文化艺术发展史上从古代艺术...
基于德国神话“尼白龙根之歌”和北欧“沃尔松格传说”改编的电影,德国2004年投资最大的神话史诗巨片,德国版的“指环王”。 巴黎街头文化20年 法国关于涂鸦艺术的记录片,这是一部记录1983—2003间法国涂鸦艺术发展史的记录电影,电影客观的...
那里有众多的世界闻名的大学、学院、图书馆以及博物院、展览馆、剧场、剧院及1985年5月落成的“晶球”全景电影院等...在法国丝绸工业发展史上最重要的人物肯定是织机式匠出身的里昂人贾卡,他是纹板提花织机的积极改革创新者,于1977年...
甚至专门研究了法国香水发展史,乃至各大香水公司的知名香水品牌。 恰好白兰香也对香水极感兴趣,一来二去两人就用英语...韩嫣暴怒中的动作,在秦笛看来,不过是电影中的慢镜头,简直可以和龟爬相提并论,不过这并不妨碍他用一种戏谑的心态来...
在我所熟悉的电影人之中,大凡经历过贫困与煎熬的艺术家,才凭借着他们无比的热诚与才华创造了影坛不朽的奇迹。 韩国...1789年的法国资产阶级革命,开辟了欧洲资本主义发展史上一个新时代。具有全欧影响的文学运动——浪漫主义运动正是法国大...
法国人很注重艺术,扯点闲话当时在巴黎旅游参观hotel de ville的时候免费欣赏了法国电影的发展史,因为不能拍照所以没有照片和大家分享 这个就是hotel de ville 总觉得法国的建筑气势很壮观连一个hotel都可以造的如此庞大,想想那时这样的hotel...
欧洲大学发展史的缩影:法国巴黎大学 概况51 世界历史上最悠久的大学 巴黎大学(university of paris)是法国国立大学,...报刊、电影、电视等媒介的全面介入,又使这场运动迅速波及整个法国,并影响到世界各地。最终,注定失败的“五月风暴”是...
丹麦电影发展史 丹麦戏剧发展史 文学巨匠安徒生 丹麦文饮食习惯 丹麦音乐发展史 童话:la kura a tajloreto 安徒生:用...丹麦音乐发展史 · 法国电影《蝴蝶》主题曲 · 法语词汇大全 · flash版法国地图! · 散文“樱花时节”中日对照 ...
也就是法国的1897型75里面口径速射炮,法国人最引以为豪的一个骗局!辰天记得法国的这种速射炮算得上火炮发展史上的...免费电影小说漂亮mm来啊 插入书签 上一篇 下一篇 首页 => 历史 => 请叫我威廉三世 繁体 0.33659...
———贡布里西《艺术发展史》 我要到南方去找更强烈的光线和色彩。南方的小城凡度山、阿维庸、桔城、尼姆、阿尔勒...于是聊起蔡明亮的电影罗大佑的歌,颇为投机。他们说起因为假期预算有限,在法国期间只选择了三个城市:巴黎,阿维庸和...
这座最早由法国人建起,最后被美国人买去的城市,新奥尔良,位于密西西比河河口,它是爵士乐的起源地,它的历史几乎就是一部爵士乐的发展史。无论著名的红灯区storyville有怎样狂欢的夜晚,无论林肯南下后多少年,那些爵士歌手唱的都是密西西比河...
E. 关于电影介绍的英文介绍作文怎么写作文
the lord of the rings 魔戒 With the help of a courageous fellowship of friends and allies, Frodo embarks on a perilous mission to destroy the legendary One Ring. Hunting Frodo are servants of the Dark Lord, Sauron, the Ring's evil creator. If Sauron reclaims the Ring, Middle-earth is doomed. When the final battle of middle-earth begins, Frodo and Sam, led by Gollum, continue their dangerous mission toward the fires of Mount Doom in order to destroy the One Ring, Aragorn struggles to fulfill his legacy as he leads his outnumbered followers against the growing power of the dark lord Sauron, So that the Ring-bearer may plete his quest. Winner of four Academy Award- Best pictures, Best Director, Best Art Direction and Best Visual Effects, this epic tale of good versus evil, friendship and sacrifice will transport you to a world beyond imagination.。
but also an opportunity to fight for their own ---- close to the governor to help him money. The last 20 years through the efforts of the hands of Reid with a buy from a *** all hammer to dig out of a prison outside the channel. So that it can not think of one，也为自己争取到了机会凯洞----接近典狱长帮他洗黑钱。
最后通过20年的努力用一把从瑞德手中买来的小锤子挖出一条通向狱外的通道。令谁也想不到。
很喜欢瑞德独白的那句话、面对残酷现实依然心怀 梦想的精神以及超人的聪明才智Today i saw a very shocking film ((Shawshank Redemption)), andy deeply by the strong conviction in the face of the cruel reality of the spirit is still harbor dreams, as well as superhuman intelligence and wisdom。身心受尽折磨，被监狱里其他人的骚扰和殴打，而更痛苦的是在高墙里的精神折磨，以及知道tom知道自己的案件的毕孙粗真相却不能翻案；Yes。
我觉得更神奇的是andy的精神号召力，他的做法总是能给他周围的人一点鼓舞，哪怕是暂时的一点精神自由，As he put in the governor'，当它们飞走的时候，你会觉得把它们关起来欣赏是种罪恶。为工友争取啤酒， that is andy，它们的羽毛太漂亮了。
；s mental torture, as well as the tom know know the truth about the case can not reverse the verdict, even for the time being that the spirit of freedom, and later released from prison so that the re-Reid to find a life of hope. . . There are even more amazing is the creative director ----- has escaped through a story has brought us so much inspiration and shock。
但是他依然是那么充满希望。. 类似肖申克的救赎的观后感的文章中文翻译在下面 只能找到这样的了今天看了一部很震撼的电影（（肖申克的救赎）），深深地被andy的坚定不移的信念，银行家andy被冤枉杀死了他的老婆及其情人，Prison others were harassed and beaten, and even more painful in the wall'. Sometimes reality is so cruel, bankers andy being wronged killed his wife and his lover. Had been tortured physically and mentally.有时候现实就是那么残酷。”
是的说的就是andy：“我不得不提醒自己有些鸟是不能关在笼子里的；s Office of the plate to the music people listen to the same prison. But he is still so full of hope. . . . Workers in their fight for the beer. I think magic is more the spirit of andy appeal, he can always practice, he is encouraged by the people around;I had to remind myself that some birds can not be locked up in cages, and their feathers are too beautiful, and when they fly away, you will find them locked up is an appreciation evil. ". Reid liked monologue of that sentence: "，像他在典狱长 的办公室放音乐碟子给监狱的人听一样，以及后来让出狱的瑞德重新找到生活的希望。 展开。
Micro Movie is booming
Micro movie is a booming form of web films. It has such features as follows:
First, its broadcast time is very short, ranging beeen several minutes and half an hour. Second, its making cycle is short as well. It can be made in one day or at most a week. Third, it needs only a little budget, which is always below ten thousand yuan. Fourth, it has a wide range of themes and a plete story plot. Last but not least, it can be watched by different means including mobile phone and tablet PCs.
If you are also interested, why not have a go at it?
这个是介绍微电影的 可以用
同意就采纳吧 谢谢
Movies have bee popular in modern world. They are one of the most important ponents of entertainment instry. Movies can satisfy most people's creation need and serve as meanful approach for learning more about the society. For instance, they can introce other culture by bringing movies into one country. Nowadays, movies play an important role in tran *** itting culture. The influnce of Hollywood is widespread all over the world. Movies are usually proced by professional pany and actors or actresses. Most of movies reflect certain culture or try to introce certain idea. Thus, they always ecate people to better understand both themselves and other people. In general, it is necessary to choose high quality movie to enlarge our horizion.不知道有生词没，太长的话自己删除一些。
i am not going to talk about the movie NO THIEF.
just now, i was told by one of my good friends that her electronic dictionary had gone. maybe someone BORROWED it PERMANENTLY. it just happened in the library of our XuHui campus.
several month ago, another clas *** ate of mine lost her cellphone at the crossroad of CaoBao and GuiLin Road. the last second she still used her cellohone to receive a call, but even before the traffic light turned from red to green, she suddenly found that the phone had gone! i was at present. maybe the thief even walked away pretending to be at leisure just under my eyelid! we called 110 at once. the police came but they still could do nothing except putting on records simply. one of the police said to us that it was much more important for us to take good care of our possession than to rely on the policeman to arrest all the rampant thieves! waht he had said was really with reason and unfotten!
no thief in the world! everybody hope so!
I have watched a film named Harry Potty,the famous movie around the world.It says that harry potter was a poor boy and he never saw his parents.he lived with his uncle .They were not good to him .Then he entered a magic school .he learned magic there and met his friends .some bad people wanted to kill him.he experienced a lot ,.but he finally defeated enimies.The writer created a wonderful and magical world,which is loved by all children in the world.I learned a lot from the film .you should have a good heart and not be afraid of any difficulties.we should be a brave and good person,and help the one who is in trouble.the people and the stories in that movie give me a deep depression.I hope that if you have a chance to watch it,you will love it like me。
The story happened ring the Second World War.Rick worked for American Intelligence Agency[1] in Paris. One day he met with Ilsa in Paris. They soon fell in love and planned to marry. However, with the German's march into Paris, they had to give up the plan and wished to get to Marseilles by train and married there. But just before the leaving by train, Rick received a letter from Ilsa, saying that she couldn't go with him. So he had to pass through many places to Casablanca and runs a Cafe[2] there. One night, he met Ilsa at his Cafe, who escaped with her hu *** and to Casablanca. They hoped to obtain exit visas here and escaped to the New World At first, Rick can't five that Ilsa's gone back on[3] her word. At first he refuses to help them get the exit visas. Learning this Ilsa determines to go alone to see Rick。
When I watched the film 《spider-man》，it give me a deep impressed.The main host-peter who is handsome and brave.He helped so many people who is need others help.
If we were him,whether we can sarcrified our love and friendship and even our study.In our life,people afraid of helping others and get into trouble.
Although we can not use special abilities like peter ,we can also try our best to help people.For example ,if we see some thieves to stolen people's wallet,we can shout to make the thieves hurries
If we can contribute our love-heart,our society will bee more and more warmth.People can make getting along well with each other.
Titanic Titanic is a love story about Jack and Rose.They were happy to be with each other on the ship celled Titanic.On the night of April 15 1912,the Titanic had a serious accident on the way to America.Jack and Rose fell into thr sea with many other people.They were very nervous and frightened because they were afraid of losing each other.In the end,Rose was saved, but Jack died.Rose felt very sad.She was so lonely.。
F. 求一篇600字左右英文的商业电影概念和起源、发展。
我找了下，商业电影是种电影分类，是以盈利性质来分的，没有找到它自己的起源发展。只找到了商业电影的制作，贴过来看看吧。
The Three Stages of Commercial Film Proction
The methods that each indivial film procer uses may vary but in the end, for the most part, all commercial films are made by the same three stage process. Inevitably proction will be broken up into other sub-stages but in the end everything that is dome will fall into one of three categories.
The first stage of any commercial film proction will be the planning stage. It is ring this stage that a script is prepared and edited and any research that is required for the film topic takes place. It is important that this stage be completed thoroughly before the film procer advances to the next step of proction.
This would be the actual proction stage of the commercial film. However; this begins with designing and creating the set according to the budget that is allocated for the film. It is not hard to see that once proction begins, the first stage must be completed in its entirety to facilitate the actual problem free proction of the film.
Post proction is the third and final stage of a commercial film proction. This is the stage when the film is edited and any special effects are added. Also, quite often sound work will take place ring this third and final stage.
Shooting a commercial film is a risky financial proposition at best, so therefor it is crucial that everything be completely organized properly to proce optimal results. Attempting a commercial film proction in any other manner will almost virtually guarantee that the end result is a financial failure.
关于概念的阐述，只找到了中文的，一起拿来参考下：（注意，不是上文的翻译）
商业电影
为营利而制作的影片，相对于艺术电影。
为盈利而制作的电影，相对于艺术电影。商业电影专指票房，从编剧到导演及演员均为此角度考虑
商业电影 Commeredia film
相为于艺术电影一词，一般指为营利而制作的影片。私人的电影工业大都以营利为主，因此生产的影片大都属于商业影片。在西方则以美国好莱坞为商业影片的大本营，重娱乐而不重现实。电影需要大量的观众，且观众也需要透过商业管道才能看到电影，但是这种商品性与商业电影的本质并非一致的，商业电影并非都是商业电影，而娱乐强的商业电影中具有社会性与艺术性的也不少。因此商业电影与电影的商品性被非一致。
文学艺术片本意为文学作品改编成的电影，现在已经是专门针对商业电影而言的一个定义。商业电影是相对于艺术电影，或者说文艺片而言的。顾名思义，艺术电影追求的是影片的艺术内涵，以行业认可为目标；商业电影追求的是票房及其衍生物的市场价值，以消费者认可为目标。所以我们所看到的所谓艺术电影的主题都是探求哲理、挖掘人性之类的深奥题材，拍摄手法不拘一格；而商业电影往往为了迎合广大观众的欣赏口味，拍摄手法以视听感官的刺激为方向，于是这个导演看见那个导演的方法受欢迎就拿来借鉴，日久天长就难免落入俗套。但事实上，在高度物质化的现代社会，即使是一部艺术电影也必须或多或少的考虑到自身的商业化效果，当然一部商业电影也或多或少带有艺术成分。完全的商业和完全的艺术几乎不存在。其实按照通俗标准来说，商业电影就是为了盈利而专门拍的电影，艺术电影则反之，不为了盈利，仅仅为了艺术、理论、宣传教育等而拍摄，但是市场经济以后，纯艺术电影丧失了生存和发展的环境和空间，于是我们现在经常看见所谓的文艺电影也在争夺影院票房，而许多商业大片为了追求更高的境界，同时也是提升其商业竞争力，而在一些技巧上借鉴艺术电影的视角或者手法，往往也获得票房和影评的双赢。所以说，严格的商业电影和艺术电影现在不仅没有狠严格的界限，而且十分模糊，甚至已经严重交叉，我们一般还是通过习惯性判断，和电影表达的内涵以及导演的执导思想来确定一部电影的大致方向。
G. 帮忙找电影发展史的英语版本，万分感谢
History of Motion Pictures
I INTRODUCTION
History of Motion Pictures, historical development of the visual medium known as motion pictures, film, cinema, or the movies. This article covers the medium’s history as a technology, as a business, as an art form, and as a means of delivering entertainment and information to audiences in theaters and at home. It discusses major filmmakers and their films, principal fiction and nonfiction genres, and film instries in the United States and throughout the world. For more information on the technical aspects involved in creating a film, see Motion Picture.
II ORIGINS
In the early 19th century scientists took note of a visual phenomenon: A sequence of indivial still pictures, when set in motion, can give the illusion of movement. These scientists attributed this experience to what they called persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. The eye’s retention of a visual image, now known as positive afterimage, has long been considered a founding principle of motion pictures, even though its relationship to the perception of motion is still not well understood.
A Early Experiments
The persistence of vision concept stimulated experimentation with motion-picture devices throughout the 19th century. Among the first such devices was a slotted disk with a sequence of drawings around its perimeter. When a person spun the disk in front of a mirror and looked through the slots, the drawings appeared to move. The zoetrope, a device developed in the 1830s, was a hollow drum with a strip of pictures around its inner surface. When spun, it proced the same effect. In the 1870s French inventor Émile Reynaud improved on this idea by placing mirrors at the center of the drum. A few years later he developed a projecting version, using a reflector and a lens to enlarge the moving images. In 1892 he began holding public screenings in Paris at his Théâtre Optique, with hundreds of drawings on a reel that he wound through his apparatus to construct moving images that continued for 15 minutes.
Inventors began to conceive of combining the principles of these moving-image devices with the photographic recording of actual movement soon after the development of still photography in the 1830s. The most famous experiment occurred in the 1870s in California, where railroad tycoon Leland Stanford hired British photographer Eadweard Muybridge to settle a bet on whether a galloping horse ever had all four feet off the ground. Muybridge set up 12 cameras along a racetrack and spread threads across the track with a contact to each camera’s shutter. Moving along the track, the horse broke the threads and caused a sequence of photographs to be taken. The photos showed the horse with all four feet off the ground, and Muybridge went on a lecture tour showing his photographs on a moving-image device he called the zoopraxiscope.
Muybridge’s endeavors stimulated French scientist Étienne-Jules Marey to devise equipment for recording and analyzing animal and human movement. He built what he called a chronophotographic camera that could take multiple images superimposed on one another. His work was aided in turn by developments in photographic materials. In 1885 American inventor George Eastman introced sensitized paper roll “film” in place of the indivial glass plates then in use. In 1889 Eastman replaced the paper roll with celluloid, a synthetic plastic material coated with a gelatin emulsion.
B Thomas Alva Edison and William K. L. Dickson
Legendary American inventor Thomas Alva Edison drew upon the work of Muybridge, Marey, and Eastman when he turned his attention to motion pictures in the late 1880s. In his laboratories in West Orange, New Jersey, Edison assigned to a British employee, William K. L. Dickson, the task of constructing a machine for recording actual movement on film and another machine for viewing the resulting images. By 1891 Dickson had proced a motion-picture camera, called the Kinetograph, and a viewing machine, bbed the Kinetoscope.
The Kinetograph was operated by an electric motor that moved the celluloid film roll past the camera lens. Motor-driven cameras, which were bulky and stationary, were soon replaced by movable hand-cranked cameras. Dickson’s key contribution was a sprocket mechanism linked to the camera’s shutter, which momentarily stopped the film roll for each exposure. These separate still photographic images came to be called frames. Early cameras used a number of different speeds for exposing frames, but by the advent of sound film in the late 1920s the standard had become 24 frames per second.
In early 1893 Edison constructed a motion-picture studio on his laboratory grounds, bbed the Black Maria by his staff who thought it resembled police patrol wagons known by that nickname. On May 9, 1893, he held the first public exhibition of films shot using the Kinetograph in the Black Maria. But only one person at a time could use his viewing machine, the Kinetoscope. This boxlike structure contained a motor-and-shutter mechanism similar to the camera’s. It ran a loop of positive film past an electric light source, illuminating a tiny image, which the viewer observed through a small window. Kinetoscope viewing parlors containing many machines for indivial viewing began to open in cities in 1894. Edison and Dickson apparently gave little thought to a single machine that could project moving images to a large audience, something Reynaud had achieved in his Théâtre Optique. Reynaud, however, had displayed drawings rather than images photographed by a motion-picture camera.
C The Lumière Brothers
In France, the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, who ran a factory in Lyons that manufactured photographic equipment, sought to improve on Edison’s accomplishment. By 1895 they developed a lightweight, hand-held camera that used a claw mechanism to advance the film roll. They named it the Cinématographe, and they soon discovered that it could also be used to show large images on a screen, when linked with projecting equipment. Throughout 1895 they shot films and projected them for select groups. Their first screening for the general public was held in Paris in December 1895.
Elsewhere other inventors were also busy. In Germany, the brothers Emil and Max Skladanowsky devised an apparatus and projected films in Berlin in November 1895. In Britain, a machine developed by Birt Acres and Robert W. Paul was used to project films in London in January 1896. In the United States, a projector called the Vitascope was constructed around the same time by Charles Francis Jenkins and Thomas Armat. Armat then entered into a commercial alliance with Edison to manufacture the Vitascope, and the device exhibited projected motion pictures in New York City in April 1896.
The Lumière brothers held a unique place among all these simultaneous efforts, since they were innovative filmmakers as well as inventors and manufacturers. The many films they made ring 1895 and 1896, though very short, are considered pivotal in the history of motion pictures. Arroseur et arrosé (Waterer and Watered, 1896), a brief comedy drawn from a newspaper cartoon, shows a gardener getting drenched with a hose as the result of a boy’s prank. La sortie de l’usine Lumière à Lyon (Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory, 1895) and Arrivée d’un train en gare (Arrival of a Train at La Ciotat, 1896), which shows a train coming to a station and passengers getting off, were among the so-called actuality films—films that depicted actual events rather than a story told by actors—for which the Lumières became noted.
III ONE-REELERS
During the decade following the advent of projected motion pictures, films were shown as part of vaudeville or variety programs, at carnivals and fairgrounds, in lecture halls and churches, and graally in spaces converted for the exclusive exhibition of movies. Most films ran no longer than 10 to 12 minutes, which reflected the amount of film that could be wound on a standard reel for projection (hence the term one-reelers). Many were comedies or actualities, following the Lumière brothers’ example. Their purpose was spectacle—to show something astounding, unusual, titillating, or perhaps newsworthy. But filmmakers also struck out in new directions, especially toward fantasy and narrative.
French magician and filmmaker Georges Méliès was the outstanding creator of fantasy films in early cinema. Méliès exploited the new medium to enhance his magic acts through techniques such as stop-motion photography—interrupting the camera’s action and moving or substituting people and objects—so that, for example, a woman appeared to turn into a skeleton. He created elaborate backdrops with multiple scenes and costume changes for these so-called trick films that were widely emulated by other filmmakers. Of the hundreds of works he made between 1896 and 1912, perhaps the best-known is Le voyage dans la lune (A Trip to the Moon, 1902), which in one scene features the animated human face of the moon being struck in the eye by a rocket.
In the United States, a former projectionist and traveling exhibitor, Edwin S. Porter, took charge of motion-picture proction at Edison’s company in 1901 and began making longer films that told a story. As with Méliès’s films, these required multiple shots that could be edited into a narrative sequence. Porter’s most notable film—and the most famous work of early cinema—was The Great Train Robbery (1903), which is credited with establishing movies as a commercial entertainment medium. With its rapid shifts of location, including action on a moving train, this film offered spectators a breadth and immediacy of vision that became hallmarks of the cinema experience.
Spurred by The Great Train Robbery and subsequent story films, film exhibition greatly expanded in the United States around 1905. One phenomenon was the proliferation of nickelodeon theaters, converted storefronts in instrial cities that charged 5 cents for admission and attracted working-class audiences. Demand from these theaters increased the volume of film proction and the profits for procers, but it also brought forth criticism from reformers concerning unsanitary or unsafe conditions in theaters and immoral subject matter in films. In 1908 Edison took the lead in establishing the Motion Picture Patents Company (MPPC), a consortium of procers with common goals: controlling proction and distribution so as to eliminate cheap theaters, raising admission prices, cooperating with censorship bodies, and preventing film stock from getting into the hands of nonmember procers. However, the independent procers excluded from the MPPC continued to obtain materials and make the most popular films. They also led the way toward multireel, feature-length films. By 1915 the MPPC was under attack by the U.S. government as an illegal monopoly (although an ineffectual one), and the independents were combining into the companies that would dominate American filmmaking for decades to come.
IV SILENT MOVIES
With a few experimental exceptions, motion pictures from their earliest days until the late 1920s lacked synchronous sound (sound that matches the action). But silent movies were rarely silent. Early films almost always were projected with piano or organ accompaniment, and sometimes also with a narrator or live actors behind the screen. As feature-length films (four reels, with a running time of 40 to 50 minutes or more) became the norm in the 1910s, live orchestras began to play in larger theaters, frequently using music written specifically for the film.
Until World War I (1914-1918) European filmmakers dominated the world film market. France was considered the leading film-procing country, though Italy, Denmark, and other countries also played a significant role. However, the war, fought on European soil, disrupted commercial filmmaking there. With a sudden drop in European film exports, some regions, such as Latin America, experienced a brief surge in film proction. But U.S. companies soon took over markets overseas, using the same tactics of high-volume proction and lower prices that the Europeans had. By the 1920s some three-quarters of films screened around the world came from the United States.
A American Silent Movies
Even before the war, the United States had made its mark on the world filmmaking scene with epics and comedies. Moreover, U.S. moviemakers had begun to congregate in southern California in the Los Angeles suburb of Hollywood (see The Move to Hollywood, below), creating a film community apart from older urban centers of politics and the arts, and a magical new symbol for popular entertainment and glamour.
A1 D. W. Griffith
The work of D. W. Griffith exemplifies the transformation of motion pictures from the early days of one-reelers to an era of Hollywood’s worldwide dominance. Starting out as an actor in films directed by Edwin S. Porter, Griffith in 1908 became a director at the American Mutoscope and Biograph Company in New York City. He was initially responsible for turning out two one-reel films a week, and between 1908 and 1913 he directed nearly 500 films. Amidst this breakneck schele, he and his co-workers developed many of the cinema’s basic storytelling conventions: moving the camera close to the action, using many separate shots, and editing the shots to cut back and forth among different actions. All these techniques served to shape a narrative, rather than present a spectacle as earlier films had tended to do. Griffith also nurtured performers such as Mary Pickford and Lillian Gish and emphasized an intimate, restrained style of acting suitable for camera close-ups.
Leaving Biograph in 1913 to make full-length features, Griffith planned a historical epic of the American Civil War (1861-1865). The Birth of a Nation (1915), three hours in length, stunned audiences with its dazzling spectacle of a still-recent event and established motion pictures as an art form for cultured spectators. Yet the film’s racist presumptions—specifically, its defense of white supremacy to protect racial purity—was controversial in its own time and remains repugnant decades later. Griffith made another epic, Intolerance (1916), which intertwined four stories about victims of prejudice, and continued to work as an independent filmmaker into the 1920s. Eventually, financial pressures forced him to become a director at a Hollywood studio, and he made his last film in 1931.
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